FlatMonkey

Hinton (of Bankside), Christopher Hinton, Baron

2005-03-18T19:35:00.000-08:00

Hinton was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge (1923–26), and in the late 1920s and the 1930s he held various governmental posts. He joined

Hinton (of Bankside), Christopher Hinton, Baron

2005-03-16T19:44:00.000-08:00

A liberal independent political organization in the United States. It was formed in 1947 by a group of labour leaders, civic and political leaders, and academics who were liberal in their views on national affairs, internationalist in world outlook, and anticommunist in conviction. The ADA is devoted to the propagation of liberal ideas, the election of liberal public

Pacorus

2005-03-15T14:32:00.000-08:00

In the summer of 51 BC Pacorus was sent to invade Syria with an army commanded by Osaces, an older warrior. Osaces, however, was killed in battle, and early the next year Orodes, learning that one of his satraps was conspiring to make Pacorus king, recalled his son. In 45, Pacorus intervened in

Eco, Umberto

2005-03-12T10:50:00.000-08:00

After receiving a Ph.D. from the University of Turin (1954), Eco worked as a cultural editor for Italian Radio-Television and also lectured at the University of Turin (1956–64). He then taught in Florence and Milan and finally, in 1971, assumed a professorial post at the University of Bologna.

Lindsay, Vachel

2005-03-10T23:57:00.000-08:00

After three years at Hiram College, Hiram, Ohio, Lindsay left in 1900 to study art in Chicago and New York City. He supported himself in part by lecturing

Arts, Islamic, Philosophy: Averroës and Avicenna

2005-03-09T11:46:00.000-08:00

Philosophy, medicine, and theology, all of which flourished in the 'Abbasid East, were also of importance in the Maghrib; and from there strong influences reached medieval Europe. The influences often came through the mediation of the Jews, who, along with numerous Christians, were largely Arabized in their cultural and literary outlook. The eastern Muslim countries

Radio Interferometer

2005-03-06T15:35:00.000-08:00

Apparatus that is used to study heavenly bodies by receiving and analyzing electromagnetic radiation that these bodies emit or reflect in the radio wavelengths. A radio interferometer is a radio telescope (q.v.) consisting of two or more separate antennas receiving radio waves from the same source, joined to one receiver. The antennas may be placed close together

China, Early power struggles

2005-03-05T16:17:00.000-08:00

During the first years of the republic there was a continuing contest between Yüan and the former revolutionaries over where ultimate power should lie. The contest began with the election of parliament (National Assembly) in February 1913. The Nationalist Party (Kuomintang; KMT), made up largely of former revolutionaries, won a commanding majority of seats. Parliament

Saxe, (hermann-) Maurice, Comte De

2005-03-02T08:11:00.000-08:00

The illegitimate son of the elector Frederick Augustus I of Saxony (later also King Augustus II of Poland), young Maurice was sent by his father to serve under Prince Eugene of Savoy against the French in Flanders

Shensi, Industry

2005-02-28T19:08:00.000-08:00

The major industrial area in Shensi is that centred around Sian. Principal industries in this area include cotton and other textiles, electrical equipment, engineering and chemical manufacturing, and iron and steel production. There are minor centres of industry at Pao-chi and at Shih-ch'üan in the Han Valley, near An-k'ang, and Yao-hsien, near T'ung-ch'uan, has a large and

Argentina, Finance

2005-02-27T20:29:00.000-08:00

Economic troubles in the 1970s and '80s caused the near

Olongapo

2005-02-25T15:04:00.000-08:00

City, southwestern Luzon, Philippines. The city is situated in a lowland area near the mouth of Subic Bay. Olongapo was heavily damaged in World War II. It became a municipality in 1959 and a chartered city in 1966. The United States' Subic Bay Naval Station was located nearby and was largely responsible for the rapid growth of the city and its business and service establishments

Dressler, Marie

2005-02-23T22:14:00.000-08:00

The daughter of a piano teacher, Dressler early discovered her ability to make audiences laugh. She made her stage debut in Michigan in 1886 and then performed for three years with the George Baker

Kirkcaldy (of Grange), Sir William

2005-02-21T21:50:00.000-08:00

Kirkcaldy was one of the Protestant conspirators who murdered the powerful cardinal David Beaton at St. Andrews Castle in May 1546. From 1550 to 1556 he served in France as a secret agent for England. He returned to Scotland in 1557 and two years later joined the Protestant lords

Obama, Barack, Jr.

2005-02-19T07:13:00.000-08:00

American politician who became the third African American, and the first African American male Democrat, to be elected to the U.S. Senate after the end of Reconstruction (1877). Obama's father, Barack Obama, Sr., was originally a goatherd in Kenya; he won a scholarship to study in the United States and eventually became a senior economist in the Kenyan

Cytosine

2005-02-16T07:12:00.000-08:00

Cytosine is one of several types of bases that are incorporated into the nucleic acid molecule. Nucleic acids are composed of

France, History Of, The hegemony of Neustria

2005-02-15T17:09:00.000-08:00

The territorial struggles began anew after 639. In Neustria, Austrasia, and Burgundy, power was in the hands of aristocratic leaders, called the mayors of the palace. Ebroïn, mayor of the palace in Neustria, attempted to unify the kingdom under his leadership but met with violent opposition. Resistance in Burgundy was led by Bishop Leodegar, who was assassinated in about

Feng Yün-shan

2005-02-12T16:54:00.000-08:00

Pinyin Feng Yunshan Chinese missionary and social reformer, one of the original leaders of the Taiping Rebellion, an uprising that occupied most of South China between 1850 and 1864, brought death to an estimated 20,000,000 people, and radically altered governmental structure. Feng was a neighbour and schoolmate of Hung Hsiu-ch'üan, the religious

Tabataba'i, Sayyid Zia Od-din

2005-02-10T23:48:00.000-08:00

Tabataba'i became prominent during World War I as the editor of a pro-British newspaper, Ra'd (“Thunder”). In 1919 he led a quasi-diplomatic mission to negotiate a commercial agreement with the anti-Communist Russian revolutionaries at Baku. On his return to Iran he joined a secret nationalist

Carter, Jimmy

2005-02-08T17:41:00.000-08:00

At the conclusion of the president's term, the Carters returned to their hometown. Rosalynn, who had taken an active role as first lady—not only acting as an adviser to the president but also attending cabinet meetings when the subjects under consideration were of interest to her—joined her husband in establishing the Carter Presidential Center in Atlanta, which included a presidential library and museum. Carter served as a sort of diplomat without portfolio in various conflicts in a number of countries—including Nicaragua (where he successfully promoted the return of the Miskito Indians to their homeland), Panama (where he observed and reported illegal voting procedures), and Ethiopia (where he attempted to mediate a settlement with the Eritrean People's Liberation Force). He was particularly active in this role in 1994, negotiating with North Korea to end nuclear weapons development there, with Haiti to effect a peaceful transfer of power, and with Bosnian Serbs and Muslims to broker a short-lived cease-fire. His efforts on behalf of international peace and his highly visible participation in building homes for the poor through Habitat for Humanity established in the public mind a much more favourable image of Carter than had been the case during his presidency. After leaving office, Carter also became a prolific author, writing on a variety of topics, including his presidency, the Middle East, and his Christian faith. He also wrote a collection of poetry.

Bernicia

2005-02-06T17:54:00.000-08:00

In British history, a northern Anglo-Saxon kingdom that by the last quarter of the 7th century had become permanently united with its neighbour Deira to form the kingdom of Northumbria. Bernicia stretched northward from perhaps as far south as the River Tees, ultimately reaching the Firth of Forth and beyond the Solway Firth. It had a royal residence at Bamburgh on

Augustinian

2005-02-04T05:18:00.000-08:00

Also called Austin, in the Roman Catholic Church, member of any of the religious orders and congregations of men and women whose constitutions are based on the Rule of St. Augustine, instructions on the religious life written by Augustine, the great Western theologian, and widely disseminated after his death, AD 430. More specifically, the name is used to designate members of two main branches

Ta'liq Script

2005-02-03T20:13:00.000-08:00

In Arabic calligraphy, cursive style of lettering developed in Iran in the 10th century. It is thought to have been the creation of Hasan ibn Husayn 'Ali of Fars, but, because Khwajah 'Abd al-Malik Buk made such vast improvements, the invention is often attributed to him. The rounded forms and exaggerated horizontal strokes that characterize the ta'liq letters were derived primarily

Peter Martyr, Saint

2005-01-31T20:30:00.000-08:00

Peter's parents were members of the Cathari, and there was some family opposition to Peter's

Italian Literature, Poetry after World War II

2005-01-30T23:30:00.000-08:00

Paradoxically, of all the forms of writing, poetry seems to be the form most thriving, although one late 20th-century critic remarked that there may be more poets in Italy than readers of poetry. Furthermore, the more recent the author, the more arguable his or her place in the canon. An authoritative 1,200-page anthology by two experts in the field, poet Maurizio Cucchi and critic

Asahi Shimbun

2005-01-28T10:02:00.000-08:00

Founded in Osaka in 1879, Asahi has been in the hands of the Murayama and Ueno families since 1881. Asahi is particularly noted for its political coverage and its foreign news.

Ubon Ratchathani

2005-01-25T22:29:00.000-08:00

The area in which Ubon Ratchathani is situated produces rice, freshwater fish, cattle, pigs, sugarcane, timber, and cotton. There are large numbers of

Beilstein, Friedrich Konrad

2005-01-24T16:40:00.000-08:00

In 1866 Beilstein was appointed professor of chemistry at the Imperial Technological Institute, St. Petersburg. The first edition of his Handbuch gave a full account of the physical

Hohe Tauern

2005-01-21T10:56:00.000-08:00

Segment of the Eastern Alps in southern Austria, extending for 70 miles (110 km) between the Zillertal Alps and the Italian border (west) and Katschberg Pass (east). Within the range lie many lofty peaks, including Grossglockner (q.v.; 12,457 feet [3,797 m]), the highest point in Austria. The range is crossed by road through the Felber Tauern Tunnel (east of Grossvenediger) and through the Hochtor

Topiary

2005-01-20T09:08:00.000-08:00

The training of living trees and shrubs into artificial, decorative shapes. Thickly leaved evergreen shrubs are used in topiary; the best subjects are box, cypress, and yew, although others—such as rosemary, holly, and box honeysuckle—are used with success. Topiary is said to have been invented by a friend of the ancient Roman emperor Augustus and is known to have been

Lignum Vitae

2005-01-18T06:36:00.000-08:00

Guaiacum officinale occurs from the southern United States to northern South America. It grows about 9 m (30 feet) tall and reaches a diameter of about 25 cm (10 inches). The evergreen leaves are opposite, divided into leaflets

Terceira Island

2005-01-16T06:11:00.000-08:00

Portuguese Ilha Terceira, island, part of the Portuguese Azores archipelago, in the North Atlantic Ocean. It occupies an area of 153 square miles (397 square km). Terceira (The Third) was so called because it was the third island in the Azores to be discovered by the Portuguese. The chief town and port is Angra do Heroísmo, which was formerly capital of the Azores. The only other town of importance is Praia

Cartridge

2005-01-14T03:13:00.000-08:00

In weaponry, unit of small-arms ammunition, composed of a metal (usually brass) case, a propellant charge, a projectile or bullet, and a primer. The first cartridges, appearing in the second half of the 16th century, consisted merely of charges of powder wrapped in paper; the ball was loaded separately. During the next century, methods of including the ball with the powder were

Amundsen, Roald

2005-01-12T01:34:00.000-08:00

Amundsen studied medicine for a while and then took to sea. In 1897 he sailed as first mate on

Athanasius, Saint

2005-01-10T19:33:00.000-08:00

Athanasius' two-part work of apologetics, Against the Heathen and The Incarnation of the Word of God, completed about 335, was the first great classic of developed Greek Orthodox theology. In Athanasius' system, the Son of God, the eternal Word through whom God made the world, entered the world in human form to lead men back to the harmony from which they had fallen away. Athanasius

Land Bridge

2005-01-07T13:02:00.000-08:00

Any of several isthmuses that have connected the Earth's major landmasses at various times, with the result that many species of plants and animals have extended their ranges to new areas. A land bridge that had a profound effect on the fauna of the New World extended from Siberia to Alaska during most of the Tertiary and Quaternary periods (beginning 66.4 million years

Ueno Zoological Garden

2005-01-03T11:20:00.000-08:00

Japanese Ueno Dobutsuen, oldest and most famous zoological garden in Japan. It was founded in 1882, and its administration was transferred to the Tokyo city government in 1924. Occupying a 32-acre (13-hectare) site in the Ueno district of Tokyo, it is landscaped in traditional Japanese style. The zoo saw much damage in World War II but was rebuilt within 10 years, mainly along prewar lines. A modernization program

Daikoku

2005-01-02T08:14:00.000-08:00

In Japanese mythology, one of the Shichi-fuku-jin (Seven Gods of Luck); the god of wealth and guardian of farmers. He is depicted in legend and art as dark-skinned, stout, carrying a wish-granting mallet in his right hand, a bag of precious things slung over his back, and sitting on two rice bags. Rats are sometimes shown nibbling at the rice, further emphasizing the theme of

Athletics

2005-01-01T13:21:00.000-08:00

Also called track-and-field sports or track and field a variety of competitions in running, walking, jumping, and throwing events. Although these contests are called track and field (or simply track) in the United States, they are generally designated as athletics elsewhere. This article covers the history, the organization, and the administration of the sports, the conduct of competitions, the rules and techniques of

Paleo-siberian

2005-01-01T05:22:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Paleosiberian, or Palaeo-siberian, any member of those peoples of northeastern Siberia who are believed to be remnants of earlier and more extensive populations pushed into this area by later Neosiberians. The Paleo-Siberians include the Chukchi, Koryak, Itelmen (Kamchadal), Nivkh (Gilyak), Yukaghir, and Ket (qq.v.). The Chukchi and Koryak are traditional reindeer breeders and hunters; maritime groups

Orange

2004-12-30T13:14:00.000-08:00

County, southeastern New York state, U.S., located mostly in the Hudson River valley. It is bordered by Pennsylvania to the northwest (the Delaware River constituting the boundary), New Jersey to the southwest, and the Hudson River to the east. Among the other waterways are the Wallkill and Neversink rivers and Shawangunk Kill. Storm King Mountain is a massive granite

Ta-li

2004-12-29T05:27:00.000-08:00

Formerly Hsia-kuan, Pinyin Dali, or Xiaguan, city in western Yunnan sheng (province), China. It is situated at the southern end of the Erh Hai (lake) in a fertile basin about 10 miles (16 km) southeast of the original Ta-li. It has traditionally been an important centre on the routes westward from K'un-ming to the Tibet Autonomous Region and northern Myanmar (Burma); it also has routes leading south into the wild southwest region

Negritude

2004-12-29T03:19:00.000-08:00

French Négritude literary movement of the 1930s, '40s, and '50s that began among French-speaking African and Caribbean writers living in Paris as a protest against French colonial rule and the policy of assimilation. Its leading figure was Léopold Sédar Senghor (elected first president of the Republic of Senegal in 1960), who, along with Aimé Césaire from Martinique and Léon Damas from French Guiana,

Tarapacá

2004-12-28T06:28:00.000-08:00

Northernmost region, Chile, bordering Peru and Bolivia on the north and east and fronting the Pacific Ocean on the west. Tarapacá was ceded to Chile by Peru after the War of the Pacific (1879–83) and was organized as a province (area 22,820 sq mi [59,104 sq km]) in 1884, and as a region in 1974. It is divided into the provinces of Arica, Parinacota, and Iquique. Part of the Atacama Desert, it is without water except

Padua, University Of

2004-12-26T13:27:00.000-08:00

Italian Università Degli Studi Di Padova, autonomous coeducational state institution of higher learning in Padua, Italy. The university was founded in 1222 by a secession of about a thousand students from the University of Bologna, reinforced by additional migrations from Bologna in 1306 and 1322. Like Bologna, it was a student-controlled university, with students electing the professors and fixing their salaries.

Hancock

2004-12-25T14:54:00.000-08:00

City, Houghton county, northwestern Upper Peninsula of Michigan, U.S., across Portage Lake from Houghton. Laid out in 1859, it was named for John Hancock, the American Revolutionary War leader. With the discovery of nearby copper mines in the mid-19th century, Hancock became a busy shipping point. In addition to mining, local industries include the manufacture of foundry products

Salandra, Antonio

2004-12-24T00:59:00.000-08:00

Salandra was educated in law and taught public administration at the University of Rome before entering politics. A member of a wealthy family and a conservative, he rose to become minister of agriculture in 1899 and finance minister in 1906 and again

Triglyceride

2004-12-23T06:46:00.000-08:00

Any one of an important group of naturally occurring lipids (fat-soluble components of living cells). Triglycerides are esters in which three molecules of one or more different fatty acids are linked to the alcohol glycerol; they are named according to the fatty acid components; e.g., tristearin contains three molecules of stearic acid, and oleodistearin, one of oleic

Pyrargyrite

2004-12-23T03:42:00.000-08:00

A sulfosalt mineral, a silver antimony sulfide (Ag3SbS3), that is an important source of silver, sometimes called ruby silver because of its deep red colour (see also proustite). The best crystallized specimens, of hexagonal symmetry, are from St. Andreasberg in the Harz Mountains and from Freiberg, both in Germany; and Colquechaca, Bol. It is mined at Guanajuato, Mex., and near

Zagwe Dynasty

2004-12-22T04:20:00.000-08:00

Also spelled Zague, line of 12th- and 13th-century Ethiopian kings who combined a nomadic military life with an impassioned desire to build monuments to their Christian religion. Their tenuous pretensions to succession, based on a legendary marriage to a daughter of one of the last Aksumite kings, the line they deposed, was subsequently confirmed by the church; in return for its support,

1945--a Watershed Year

2004-12-21T11:08:00.000-08:00

The Test.--The first atomic bomb in the history of mankind was exploded at 5:30 A.M. on July 16, 1945, at the Alamogordo air base in the desert 120 mi. southeast of Albuquerque, N.M. The bomb had been placed on a tall steel tower while scientists and military experts occupied

Pithoragarh

2004-12-20T13:48:00.000-08:00

City, northern Uttar Pradesh state, northern India. It lies east of Almora, on a ridge of the Himalayan foothills. The surrounding area lies entirely within the Himalayan Range and is bordered by Nepal to the east and China to the north. Rice, barley, and wheat are grown. Pop. (1991 prelim.) city, 27,753.

Alexander I

2004-12-19T09:55:00.000-08:00

Russian in full Aleksandr Pavlovich emperor of Russia (1801–25), who alternately fought and befriended Napoleon I during the Napoleonic Wars but who ultimately (1813–15) helped form the coalition that defeated the emperor of the French. He took part in the Congress of Vienna (1814–15), drove for the establishment of the Holy Alliance (1815), and took part in the conferences that

Dachstein

2004-12-18T16:32:00.000-08:00

Mountain massif of the northern Alps, Austria, on the borders of the Bundesländer (federal provinces) Oberösterreich, Salzburg, and Steiermark, reaching its maximum elevation at Hoher Dachstein (9,826 ft [2,995 m]). Among the massif's higher reaches are the easternmost and northernmost glaciers of the Alps, the largest of which is the Hallstättergletscher, 2 sq mi (5.3 sq km) in area. The

Indre River

2004-12-16T17:29:00.000-08:00

River, west-central France, a left-bank tributary of the Loire River. Rising on the northern flanks of the Massif Central, it flows 165 miles (265 km) northwestward through Indre and Indre-et-Loire départements, joining the Loire northwest of Chinon and draining a basin of about 5,200 square miles (13,500 square km). It flows exclusively through agricultural regions, crossing La Châtre, and

Foy, Maximilien(-sébastien)

2004-12-16T08:30:00.000-08:00

Foy served in the artillery and the infantry, attaining the rank of major in 1796, staff colonel in 1799, and brigadier

Mathews, Edwin Lee

2004-12-15T16:39:00.000-08:00

American professional baseball player (b. Oct. 13, 1931, Texarkana, Texas—d. Feb. 18, 2001, San Diego, Calif.), was one of major league baseball's most prolific hitters, with 512 home runs and 2,315 hits in his 17-year career, and was widely regarded as the best third baseman of the 1950s and early '60s. Mathews made his major league debut with the Boston Braves in 1952 and remained with the franchise when it moved to Milwaukee,

Scipio Africanus The Elder

2004-12-13T22:12:00.000-08:00

Latin Scipio Africanus Major , in full Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus Roman general noted for his victory over the Carthaginian leader Hannibal in the great Battle of Zama (202 BC), ending the Second Punic War. For his victory he won the surname Africanus (201 BC).

Bacchelli, Riccardo

2004-12-12T05:35:00.000-08:00

Bacchelli attended the University of Bologna but left without a degree in 1912. He became a contributor to literary journals. Bacchelli published a

Trichinosis

2004-12-11T22:43:00.000-08:00

Also called Trichiniasis, a disorder resulting from infestation with the small roundworm Trichinella spiralis, commonly acquired by humans by the eating of undercooked pork containing encapsulated larvae of the parasite. In the stomach and small intestine, the capsular coating is digested, and the liberated larvae invade the mucosal lining of the small intestine, becoming adults within

Mason, Lowell

2004-12-09T15:07:00.000-08:00

Mason went to Savannah, Ga., as a bank clerk and became choirmaster at the Independent Presbyterian Church in that city. In 1822 he returned to Boston and published his famous and profitable The Handel and Haydn Society's Collection

Morea, Despotate Of

2004-12-09T03:48:00.000-08:00

Autonomous Byzantine principality located on the Greek Peloponnese (Morea). It was established in the mid-14th century by the Byzantine emperor John VI Cantacuzenus (reigned 1347–54) as an appanage for his son Manuel. Manuel Cantacuzenus consolidated his territory against the claims of Latins (western Europeans) and the inroads of Turks, but after his death (1380) the Palaeologians

Burg, Yosef

2004-12-08T22:47:00.000-08:00

Burg studied at the University of Berlin and in 1933 earned a doctorate in philosophy from the University of Leipzig. Ordained

Wade-giles Romanization

2004-12-06T20:53:00.000-08:00

System of romanizing the modern Chinese written language, originally devised to simplify Chinese language characters for the Western world. Initiated by Sir Thomas Francis Wade (q.v.), the system was modified by the Cambridge professor Herbert Allen Giles in his Chinese–English Dictionary (1912). With Giles's syllabic changes, Wade-Giles became the preferred Chinese

Vermuyden, Sir Cornelius

2004-12-05T13:02:00.000-08:00

An experienced embankment engineer, Vermuyden was employed in 1626 by King Charles I of England to drain Hatfield Chase on the isle of Axholme, Yorkshire. Jointly financed by Dutch and English capitalists,

Arfvedsonite

2004-12-04T19:17:00.000-08:00

Amphibole mineral, an iron-rich sodium silicate. Lithium and magnesium replace iron in the structure to form eckermannite. Both minerals characteristically occur as dark-green crystals in alkali igneous rocks and their associated pegmatites. For chemical formula and detailed physical properties, see amphibole (table).

Earth, Growth phase

2004-12-04T06:51:00.000-08:00

An isolated substorm begins when the IMF turns southward and dayside reconnection begins. For about an hour afterward, bands of quiet auroral arcs drift equatorward near midnight in the northern and southern auroral ovals. The eastward and westward electrojets, flowing from noon toward midnight along the ovals, gradually increase in strength and move equatorward

Aruqtai

2004-12-02T04:52:00.000-08:00

Chief of the As (or Alan) Mongols, who allied himself with Mahamu, chief of the Oyrat Mongols, and with him defeated Ugechi, whom the Ming dynasty had recognized as the chief of the Mongols. In 1423 Aruqtai proclaimed himself great khan of the Mongols, launching devastating raids into North China. He was finally defeated when Mahamu's son, Togon-temür, rebelled against

Action Française

2004-12-01T18:59:00.000-08:00

The Action Française movement originated at the close of the 19th century to champion the antiparliamentarian, anti-Semitic, and

Production Function

2004-12-01T10:41:00.000-08:00

The production function can

Andrew I

2004-11-30T21:32:00.000-08:00

Having accompanied his father, Yury Dolgoruky, on his conquest of Kiev, Andrew refused to remain in the ancient capital of Rus and returned

Biblical Literature, Christology in Hebrews

2004-11-28T17:27:00.000-08:00

The church is viewed as being in danger of discouragement in the face of persecution and possible apostasy. If faithless, church members risk total loss, for no second repentance is possible. Through his special Christology, the author seeks to help the readers by showing that Christ is the saviour superior to any other and that as Saviour, Son of God, High Priest, pioneer,

France, History Of, Trade

2004-11-26T19:38:00.000-08:00

Despite the Islamic conquests, Mediterranean commerce did not decline abruptly. In Gaul, such goods as papyrus, oil, and spices were imported from the East, and there were numerous colonies of Syrians. Currency continued to be based on the gold standard, and imperial units were still used. All signs, moreover, point to the existence of manufacturing for trade (marble from

Family

2004-11-25T14:35:00.000-08:00

A group of persons united by the ties of marriage, blood, or adoption, constituting a single household and interacting with each other in their respective social positions, usually those of spouses, parents, children, and siblings. The family group should be distinguished from a household, which may include boarders and roomers sharing a common residence. It should

Kyongsang-nam

2004-11-25T04:22:00.000-08:00

Do (province), southeastern South Korea. It is bordered east by the Sea of Japan, south by the Korea Strait, west by Cholla-nam and Cholla-puk do, and north by Kyongsang-puk do. Pusan, capital of the province, was separated administratively in 1963, when it was elevated to the status of a special city. The Naktong River and its tributaries irrigate most of the province. The Kimhae delta

Christian Viii

2004-11-23T01:13:00.000-08:00

While still crown prince of Denmark and recent stadtholder (governor) of Norway, Christian accepted election as king of Norway in 1814 by the Norwegian independence faction, which refused to recognize the cession of Norway

Middelburg

2004-11-22T15:00:00.000-08:00

Gemeente (commune) and capital, Zeeland provincie, southwestern Netherlands, on the former Walcheren Island. Named for its central position on the island, Middelburg was a flourishing medieval town that traded in wine and cloth and that later prospered through the activities of the Dutch East India Company. It was one of the first towns captured by the Sea

Epistemology, Tautological versus significant propositions

2004-11-21T07:22:00.000-08:00

A proposition is said to be tautological if its constituent terms repeat themselves or if they can be reduced to terms that do, so that the proposition is of the form “a = a.” In such a case the proposition is said to be trivial and empty of cognitive import. A proposition is said to be significant if its constituent terms are such that the proposition does provide new information

Denitrifying Bacteria

2004-11-21T03:45:00.000-08:00

Microorganisms whose action results in the conversion of nitrates in soil to free atmospheric nitrogen, thus depleting soil fertility and reducing agricultural productivity. Thiobacillus denitrificans, Micrococcus denitrificans, and some species of Serratia, Pseudomonas, and Achromobacter are implicated as denitrifiers. Pseudomonas aeruginosa can,

Iligan

2004-11-20T07:36:00.000-08:00

City, northern Mindanao, Philippines. On the southeastern shore of Iligan Bay, it is the island's major industrial city and an important port at the mouth of the Iligan River. Its growth has stemmed largely from the proximity of the Agus River, with its great hydropower potential harnessed at Maria Cristina Falls. Industries include steel, calcium-carbide, and ferroalloy

Quintana, Manuel José

2004-11-18T07:47:00.000-08:00

After studying law at the University of Salamanca, he went to Madrid to begin his

Biblical Literature, New Testament literature

2004-11-17T21:12:00.000-08:00

The following works are useful for commentary, survey articles, and bibliographic material: George A. Buttrick (ed.), The Interpreter's Bible, especially vol. 1, 7, and 12 (1952–57); Matthew Black (ed.), Peake's Commentary on the Bible, 2nd ed. (1962); and Raymond E. Brown, Joseph A. Fitzmyer, and Roland E. Murphy (eds.), The Jerome Biblical Commentary (1968). Werner G. Kuemmel, The New Testament: The History of the Investigations of Its Problems (1972), covers the whole history of New Testament studies with ample excerpts from the major scholars since the 18th century. For a rich introduction to the 27 books of the New Testament with full and balanced reporting on all major issues of contemporary discussion and extensive bibliographies, see Paul Feine, Johannes Behm, and Werner G. Kuemmel, Einleitung in das Neue Testament, 14th rev. ed. (1965; Eng. trans., Introduction to the New Testament, 1966). For a general dictionary to the Bible, see George A. Buttrick (ed.), The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, 4 vol. (1962). The most extensive tool for the study of New Testament theological terms is Gerhard Kittel (ed.), Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, vol. 1–8 (1964–72, in progress). For New Testament theologies, see Rudolf Bultmann, Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 3rd ed. (1958; Eng. trans., Theology of the New Testament, 2 vol., 1951–55); Hans Conzelmann, Grundriss der Theologie des Neuen Testaments, 2nd ed. (1967; Eng. trans., An Outline of the Theology of the New Testament, 1969). For general commentary, see The International Critical Commentary on the Holy Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, 41 vol. (1895–1920); for the major German commentary, see Kritisch exegetischer Kommentar über das Neuen Testament (“Meyer Series,” frequently updated); Handbuch zum Neuen Testament (Lietzmann-Bornkamm); and Das Neue Testament Deutsch (Göttinger Bibelwerk). For a major French Protestant commentary, see Commentaire du Nouveau Testament and for major French and German Roman Catholic commentaries, see Etudes bibliques and Das Neue Testament übersetzt und erklärt (the Regensburger New Testament). (Gospels—texts): Kurt Aland (ed.), Synopsis Quattuor Evangeliorum (1964), a Greek synopsis, includes the Gospel of John and translations (Eng. trans. 1972) of the Coptic Gospel of Thomas. For a synopsis, see Burton H. Throckmorton, Jr. (ed.), Gospel Parallels: A Synopsis of the First Three Gospels, 3rd ed. (1967). For a general study of the Gospels and the Synoptic problem, see Frederick C. Grant, The Gospels: Their Origin and Their Growth (1957). For arguments against the priority of Mark, see William R. Farmer, The Synoptic Problem (1964). Significant new approaches to gospel study are found in James M. Robinson and Helmut Koester, Trajectories Through Early Christianity (1971). For form criticism, see Rudolf Bultmann, Die Geschichte der synoptischen Tradition, 3rd ed. (1958; Eng. trans., The History of the Synoptic Tradition, 1963). Amos N. Wilder, Early Christian Rhetoric (1971), goes beyond form criticism by fuller attention to modern literary criticism. (Mark): Robert H. Lightfoot, The Gospel Message of St. Mark (1950); and Willi Marxsen, Der Evangelist Markus (1959; Eng. trans., Mark the Evangelist, 1969), are two outstanding works representing different periods and methods of scholarship. (Matthew): For discussion of the arrangement, Old Testament citations, and theology of Matthew, see Guenther Bornkamm, Gerhard Barth, and Heinz J. Held, Auslegung im Mattäus-evangelium (1960; Eng. trans., Tradition and Interpretation in Matthew, 1963). David Hill, New Testament Prophesy (1980), a discussion of prophesy both in the Bible and in the church today. Krister Stendahl, “Prayer and Forgiveness,” in Svensk Exegetisk Ársbok, 22–23:75–86 (1957–58), in English; and The School of St. Matthew and Its Use of the Old Testament, 2nd ed. (1968). (Luke): Henry J. Cadbury, The Making of Luke-Acts, 2nd ed. (1958); and Hans Conzelmann, Die Mitte der Zeit: Studien zur Theologie des Lukas, 3rd ed. (1960; Eng. trans., The Theology of St. Luke, 1960), represent a classic treatment of Luke-Acts. (John): Among the most important recent studies on John are Charles H. Dodd, Historical Tradition in the Fourth Gospel (1963), and The Interpretation of the Fourth Gospel (1953); Ernst Kaesemann, Jesu letzter Wille nach Johannes 17. (1966; Eng. trans., The Testament of Jesus: A Study of the Gospel of John in the Light of Chapter 17, 1968); and James L. Martyn, History and Theology in the Fourth Gospel (1968). (Acts): See also Luke above. For Acts viewed in its own time, see Henry J. Cadbury, The Book of Acts in History (1955). Literary style and methods of composition are discussed in Martin Dibelius, Aufsätze zur Apostelgeschichte (1951; Eng. trans., Studies in the Acts of the Apostles, 1956). The scope and purpose of Acts are treated in P.M. Menoud, “Le Plan des Actes des Apôtres,” New Testament Studies, 1:44–50 (1954–55); and W.C. van Unnik, “The ‘Book of Acts' the Confirmation of the Gospel,” Novum Testamentum, 4:26–59 (1960). (Paul): For general works on Paul and the epistles, see Guenther Bornkamm, Early Christian Experience (1970), and Paulus (1969; Eng. trans., 1971); William D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism, 2nd ed. (1955); Martin Dibelius and Werner G. Kuemmel, Paulus (1951; Eng. trans., 1953); Johannes Munck, Paulus und die Heilsgeschichte (1954; Eng. trans., Paul and the Salvation of Mankind, 1959); Arthur D. Nock, St. Paul (1938); and Hans J. Schoeps, Paulus: Die Theologie des Apostels (1959; Eng. trans., Paul: The Theology of the Apostle , 1961). See also Krister Stendahl, “The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West,” Harvard Theological Review, 51: 199–215 (1963). For a survey of Pauline studies, see Edward E. Ellis, Paul and His Recent Interpreters (1961); Wayne A. Meeks (ed.), The Writings of St. Paul (1972); and Ernst Kaesemann, Paulinische Perspektiven (1969; Eng. trans., Perspectives on Paul, 1971). (Romans): John Knox, “A Note on the Text of Romans,” New Testament Studies, 2: 191–192 (1955–56); Krister Stendahl, “Hate, Non-Retaliation, and Love: 1QS x, 17–20 and Romans 12:19–21,” Harvard Theological Review, 50:343–355 (1962). (I Corinthians): For a discussion of the heresies met in I Corinthians, see Walter Schmithals, Die Gnosis in Korinth, 3rd ed. (1969; Eng. trans., Gnosticism in Corinth, 1971). (II Corinthians): For the arrangement of the fragments of II Corinthians and their redaction, see Guenther Bornkamm, “The History of the Origin of the So-Called 2nd Letter to the Corinthians,” New Testament Studies, 8:258–264 (1961–62). For a discussion of Paul's opponents in II Corinthians, see Dieter Georgi, Die Gegner des Paulus im 2. Korintherbrief: Studien zur religiösen Propaganda in der Spätantike (1964); and his shorter article on this subject, “Forms of Religious Propaganda,” in Hans J. Schultz (ed.), Die Zeit Jesu (1966; Eng. trans., Jesus in His Time, 1971). (Galatians): For a discussion of the heretics in Galatia, see Walter Schmithals, “Die Häretiker in Galatien,” Zeitschrift für die Neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kunde der Aelteren Kirche (ZNW), pp. 25–67 (1956). (Ephesians): For the meaning and goal of Ephesians, see Edgar J. Goodspeed, The Meaning of Ephesians (1933), and The Key to Ephesians (1956). See also C. Leslie Mitton, The Epistle to the Ephesians (1951). (Philippians): For the place of Philippians in the Pauline collection and the meaning of its various sections, see Helmut Koester, “The Purpose of the Polemic of a Pauline Fragment (Philippians III),” New Testament Studies, 8:317–332 (1961–62). For the concept of Philippians as a testament, see Dieter Georgi, “Ein Testament des Paulus (Phil. 3, 2ff.),” ZNW (1972). (Philemon): John Knox, Philemon Among the Letters of Paul, 2nd ed. (1959). (Pastoral Epistles): For evidence against Pauline authorship, see Percy N. Harrison, The Problem of the Pastoral Epistles (1921). See also Eduard Schweizer, Church Order in the New Testament (1961). (Hebrews): Concerning the Christology of Hebrews and the idea of the “wandering people of God,” see Ernst Kaesemann, Das wandernde Gottesvolk, 3rd ed. (1959). An approach to the eschatology of Hebrews and an origin connected with followers of Stephen is found in William Manson, The Epistle to the Hebrews (1951). (Catholic Epistles): For the typical admixture of parenesis, apocalyptic, and the general address of the Catholic Epistles, see Carl Andresen, “Zum Formular frühchristlicher Gemeindebriefe,” ZNW, 56:233–259 (1965). The similarity of style of the Catholic Epistles to later Christian Greek literature is treated in A. Wifstrand, “Stylistic Problems in the Epistles of James and Peter,” Studia Theologica, 11:35–60 (1948). (James): For a solution to the apparent contradiction of Paul and James concerning “works,” see Joachim Jeremias, “Paul and James,” Expository Times, 66:368–371 (1954–55); for clarification of special passages with a modern technique similar to rabbinic methodology, see Roy B. Ward, “The Works of Abraham: James 2:14–26,” Harvard Theological Review, 61:283–290 (1968), and “Partiality in the Assembly: James 2:2–4,” ibid., 62:87–97 (1969). (I Peter): For a date in Trajan's time, see John Knox, “Pliny and I Peter: A Note on I Pet. 4:14–16 and 3:15,” Journal of Biblical Literature, 72:187–189 (1953); an interpretation of the Descent into Hell is found in B. Reicke, The Disobedient Spirits and Christian Baptism: A Study of I Peter iii, 19 and Its Context (1946). (II Peter and Jude): For motivation for the writing of II Peter, see Ernst Kaesemann, “An Apologia for Primitive Christian Eschatology,” in Essays on New Testament Themes (1964). (Johannine Epistles): For speculations as to authorship, date, and nature of the situation of the Johannine Epistles, see W.F. Howard, “The Common Authorship of the Johannine Gospel and Epistles,” Journal of Theological Studies (1947). (Revelation): Concerning liturgical style and content in Revelations, see Guenther Bornkamm, “On the Understanding of Worship; B,” in Early Christian Experience (1969). For a study of Revelation as a creative revelatory poem with unity throughout, drawing upon apocalyptic imagery of its time, see Austin M. Farrer, A Rebirth of Images (1949, reprinted 1963). A general survey of apocalypticism and apocalypses from 200 BC into the early Christian era is found in David S. Russell (op. cit.).

France, History Of, Peasant insurgencies

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Competition over the ownership and the use of land had intensified in many regions.

Hinayana

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(Sanskrit: “Lesser Vehicle”), the more orthodox, conservative schools of Buddhism; the name Hinayana was applied to these schools by the followers of the Mahayana Buddhist tradition in ancient India. The name reflected the Mahayanists' evaluation of their own tradition as a superior method, surpassing the others in universality and compassion; but the name was not accepted

Aristides Quintilianus

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Greek author of a treatise on music (Perì musikês), one of the principal sources of modern knowledge of ancient Greek music. The work deals with scales, metres, and the composition of melodies, as well as with the educational value of music and the relation of music, through mathematics, to phenomena in nature. It was regarded by Byzantine and Arab scholars as

Ligdan

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Ligdan's authority

Jackson, Robert H(oughwout)

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An adept scholar, Jackson pleaded his first case by special permission while still a minor and was admitted to the bar at the age of 21. He served as corporation counsel for Jamestown, N.Y., and, after the Stock Market Crash of 1929, helped merge the city's three financial institutions,

Earhart, Amelia

2004-11-11T10:51:00.000-08:00

Amelia Earhart, Last Flight, arranged by George Palmer Putnam (1937, reissued 1988), contains journal entries and messages sent home, selected and arranged by her husband. Biographies include George Palmer Putnam, Soaring Wings (1939, reissued 1972); Doris L. Rich, Amelia Earhart (1989); Mary S. Lovell, The Sound of Wings (1989); Susan Butler, East to the Dawn (1997); and Donald M. Goldstein and Katherine V. Dillon, Amelia (1997). Randall Brink, Lost Star: The Search for Amelia Earhart (1994), examines her disappearance.

San

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Contrary to earlier

Arts, Islamic, Stringed instruments

2004-11-08T07:23:00.000-08:00

Chordophones, or stringed instruments, constitute the most important family. The favourite instrument of Islamic classical music is the 'ud, a short-necked lute having four or five strings and resembling the Western lute, which derived from the 'ud. In addition to holding musical supremacy, it was important in medieval theoretical and cosmological speculations. It

Porringer

2004-11-07T23:34:00.000-08:00

A shallow, round bowl with one or two flat, horizontal handles set on opposite sides of the rim and, usually, a shallow lid. In recent usage, the word has also been used to refer to late 16th- and early 17th-century English silver vessels of cylindrical form with two vertical scroll handles. The precise purpose of porringers, or écuelles, as they are known in France, is in dispute;

Berat

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Located strategically between the ancient regions of Illyria and Epirus, Berat was the

Hojo Tokimune

2004-11-05T17:35:00.000-08:00

Tokimune was 17 when he assumed the office of regent in 1268, the year that the Mongol conqueror of China, Kublai Khan, sent a message demanding that

Novo Mesto

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City, southern Slovenia, on the Krka River. Novo Mesto was founded in 1365 by Rudolf IV of Austria and became an important military base on the Ottoman frontier in the 15th century. Though ravaged twice by fire (1576 and 1664) and once by plague (1599), Novo Mesto developed into an important regional centre. The modern city has a hydroelectric power plant as well as textile, automobile, and chemical-pharmaceutical

North America, The dispossession of the Indians

2004-11-04T10:03:00.000-08:00

The process of removing the Indians from their ancestral lands led to bitter disputes. The British tried to end one such problem by setting up the Proclamation Line of 1763 along the Appalachian divide, allowing whites to take over what lay to the east but attempting to reserve what lay to the west as Indian territory. After their independence from Britain, the Americans

Hyde De Neuville, Jean-guillaume, Baron

2004-11-03T02:44:00.000-08:00

Devoted to Louis XVI, Hyde de Neuville remained a royalist agent after the outbreak of the Revolution. After taking part in a royalist insurrection in Berry (1796), he attempted first to discredit the Directory, then to convince Napoleon to reestablish the Bourbons on the

Cohen, Albert

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From 1900 Cohen was reared in Marseilles, France. He studied law in Geneva, became a Swiss citizen, and began a career as a writer and as a civil servant, notably with the International Labour Organisation

Urso, Camilla

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Urso was the daughter of an Italian flutist and a Portuguese singer. When she was six years old, despite general skepticism about her ability to master a “masculine” instrument, she began taking violin lessons. The success of

Fable, Parable, And Allegory, Renaissance and modern allegory

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Douglas Bush, Mythology and the Renaissance Tradition in English Poetry, rev. ed. (1963); Walter Benjamin, Ursprung des deutschen Trauerspiels (1928); Harold Bloom, The Visionary Company (1961); A.S. Fletcher, The Prophetic Moment: An Essay on Spenser (1971); Alastair Fowler, Triumphal Forms: Structural Patterns in Elizabethan Poetry (1970); Northrop Frye, Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake (1947); U.M. Kaufman, The Pilgrim's Progress and Traditions in Puritan Meditation (1966); Michael Murrin, The Veil of Allegory: Some Notes Toward a Theory of Allegorical Rhetoric in the English Renaissance (1969); Jean Seznec, La Survivance des dieux antiques (1939; Eng. trans., The Survival of the Pagan Gods, rev. ed., 1953); E.M.W. Tillyard, The Elizabethan World Picture (1943); Edgar Wind, Pagan Mysteries in the Renaissance, new ed. (1968).

Wolff, Tobias

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Wolff's parents divorced when he was a child; from age 10 until he joined the U.S. Army, he traveled with his mother, who relocated frequently and finally settled in Seattle, Washington, where she remarried. Wolff wrote about